Rosh Hashanah ראש השנה

The term Rosh HaShana appears only once in the Bible, in the book of Ezekiel: “In the beginning of the year [rosh hashana], in the tenth day of the month” (Ezekiel 40:1). Here, Rosh HaShana is the first month of the year rather than a specific day. In fact, the verse is referring to Yom Kippur in the Jubilee Year (Arakhin 12a).

If Rosh HaShana refers to the first month of the year, however, then it should refer not to Tishrei, but to Nisan. In Nisan, prior to the exodus from Egypt, God explicitly instructed Moses: “This month shall be unto you the beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year to you” (Exodus 12:2). The Torah consistently lists months as the first, the second, etc., counting from Nisan. The Sages resolved this apparent contradiction by distinguishing between four different New Years, each on a different date, depending on what type of year is being discussed. They also defined four different times when the world is judged. Nisan marks the New Year for historical dating. The agricultural year begins in Tishrei (see Deuteronomy 11:12 and Exodus 23:16). In addition, there are other significant annual cycles.

For certain matters, time is not fixed with a single New Year; rather, it is based on the actual age of people or animals and their physical development. The Sages established how to measure time for each concept based on its unique considerations. Tractate Rosh HaShana lists the various New Years and explains which calendars should be used for various counts, e.g., dating documents, interpreting vows, and giving tithes. The Jewish calendar is based to a large degree on the lunar cycle, which is approximately twenty-nine and one half days. The Jewish calculation of months is based on the appearance of the new moon. However, certain times of the year must also correspond to certain seasons, which are related to the solar year. Since most of the Festivals and events in the Jewish calendar are connected to specific days in the lunar month, the Gemara grapples with questions such as: To what extent must the court rely on the natural, heavenly cycles? Is it possible to create a fixed calendar based solely on mathematical calculations, or must it be based entirely or at least somewhat on direct observation?

The conclusion of the Sages is that time, and even more so Festivals, cannot be measured as an abstract concept, but must be connected and intertwined directly with observed reality. Therefore, they preferred to base the calendar on witnesses who saw the new moon, along with the science and mathematics of astronomical calculations. Notwithstanding the many practical difficulties caused by requiring witnesses and testimony, there is also one great benefit. It provides an empirical check of the theoretical knowledge and calculations. Furthermore, the Sages recognized that time on earth is not uniform on all parts of the globe. Therefore, they set fixed locations as the basis for their calculations. Just as the secular world uses Greenwich Mean Time, locating the center of their calculations near London, the Sages used the location of the Sanhedrin in Eretz Yisrael and derived from that various other geographical markers for their calculations. These calculations were used to verify the witnesses' testimony, and they served as a theoretical basis for a calendar that could be independent of a court and witnesses. Due to the many harsh decrees against the Jewish people, eventually the Nasi, Hillel the Second, established the fixed calendar, which is based solely on these calculations. The early authorities discussed its halakhic basis and its details. This calendar is used to this day.

The task of setting calendar events, including the Festivals, was primarily given to humanity, through the witnesses who observed the occurrences and through the court, which accepted and authorized their testimony and fixed the dates of the Festivals. Through this process, the court and the Jewish people became partners with God. Additionally, it ensured the centrality of Eretz Yisrael, where the court was located and from where the calculations were made. Setting the calendar based on the Jewish people, in their chosen land, based on the words of the Torah of God, ensures that the Festivals symbolize the relationship between the nation and God. Establishing the Festivals in one central location creates many obstacles. The witnesses must reach the court, their testimony must be examined, and the decisions of the court must be made known to the residents of Eretz Yisrael and the Diaspora. Technical communication difficulties, as well as intentional sabotage perpetrated by those with ulterior motives, required the establishment of a complex system of laws in order to ensure a single, accurate calendar. The Sages established a second Festival day in the Diaspora both to safeguard against possible errors due to faulty communications and to stress the centrality of Eretz Yisrael.

Although there are up to six different New Years in the Jewish calendar (see 7b), there is only one New Year that is called simply Rosh HaShana. This is the first of Tishrei. This Festival is described by the Torah as “A day of blowing the shofar” (Numbers 29:1), and “A memorial proclaimed with the blast of shofar” (Leviticus 23:24). Sounding the shofar is the unique and central mitzva of the day. Unlike the sounding of the shofar in the Temple accompanying the choir of Levites, the shofar blasts on Rosh HaShana are not intended to create a pleasant, musical sound. Their essence combines elements of remembrance, proclamation, warning, and majestic coronation. These shofar blasts must be done in a specific manner. The Gemara discusses the precise details of fulfilling this mitzva, including the specifications of the shofar itself, the timing of the blasts, and the manner in which they are sounded. Since the shofar of Rosh HaShana is not sounded solely in the Temple, but in every place for every Jewish person, rabbinic decrees were instituted to prevent unintentional transgression of Torah laws. For this reason, the Sages decreed that the shofar may not be sounded on Shabbat, except for inside the borders of the Temple or the central court.

Tractate Rosh HaShana has four chapters. Each has a central theme.

Chapter One discusses the various New Years and the practical application of each. It also begins the topic of the testimony of witnesses to the court.

Chapter Two discusses the manner of examining the witnesses and their testimony.

Chapter Three is primarily concerned with the sounding of the shofar.

Chapter Four discusses Rosh HaShana that occurs on Shabbat and the prayer service on Rosh HaShana.